Burbank Special Education: Last Chance: A Review of Transition Issues for Students with Learning Disabilities

It appears that Eliza Doolittle got it right, in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, when she said, "The difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves but how she's treated." In the classroom, differences in expectation can propel some kids ahead yet hold others back. Kuklinski and Weinstein helped clarify this expectancy effect. They found that in the early schooling years, there was a direct impact of teacher expectation on student achievement. In fact, a relatively small change in expectation resulted in a much larger change in achievement. By 5th grade, there was a significant indirect effect of expectation as well: Changes in teacher expectations led to changes in the students' self-expectation that further eroded or improved achievement. Furthermore, for the student, changes in teacher expectations in one domain affected student achievement in other domains as well. It appears that children with learning disabilities may be especially vulnerable to low expectation effects.

This background is good to know when considering transition issues for children with learning disabilities. Transition usually begins by age 14 and continues until the child leaves high school. Transition is often the last chance that a child with a learning disability will have to prepare for a fulfilling life. This article reviews the recent educational literature regarding the transition process for children with learning disabilities. In many respects, this article is about thinking and acting during the years leading up to transition for children with learning disabilities, during those transition years, and the outcomes for the child after the child has left school. The issues addressed include participation in the transition process by teachers, parents, students and others; assessment and the very closely linked self-advocacy issue; student outcomes and aspirations related to transition; strategies for successful transition; issues related to diversity; and a final section, entitled Road to Pygmalion, that synthesizes and critiques the works reviewed in the above sections, and provides some additional focus for continued thinking and acting.

Participation

Hitchings and others found that successful adults with learning disabilities understand their strengths and weaknesses, have a clear understanding of their disabilities and the impact of their disabilities on their lives, and are able to set-up and implement an action plan with realistic goals. Furthermore, highly successful adults with learning disabilities have a strong sense of control over career-related events and make a conscious decision to take charge of their own lives.

Yet, many individuals with learning disabilities have experiences and personal attributes that hinder their ability to make decisions regarding their own careers. For example, a significant amount of time during high school may have been spent on academic remediation rather than on career exploration and preparation. Parents and professionals often have low expectations for individual students with a learning disability. These low expectations often mean that the student's needs and interests are not taken seriously. Students often develop low expectations for themselves as individuals. For example, students feel that they have no control over what becomes of them; they develop an excessive fear of failure; and they lack any kind of goal orientation.

Young adults and adolescents with learning disabilities may lack an awareness of the career options that may be available to them, may develop only a limited knowledge of the career decision-making process, and may lack needed skills for successful employment. The long-term prognosis for many individuals with learning disabilities has often been underemployment and unemployment.

The authors conducted interviews of 97 college students who had been identified with learning disabilities either in the primary grades, intermediate grades, high school or while in postsecondary education. They discovered that, from a students' perspective, only slightly more than 20% were involved at all in their own transition planning. Most did not have any specific career goals, could not describe their disability, and did not know how their disability could affect their future job performance. These results should be surprising, especially with respect to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandate for transition planning. These results should also be disappointing, especially with respect to the known characteristics of highly successful adults with leaning disabilities.

Lehmann, Basset and Sands did a qualitative study that explored high school students' participation in transition activities from multiple perspectives. Specifically, they wanted to find out what transition-related activities were taking place; how students, mothers, and teachers are involved in the transition process; and what teachers and mothers think are the barriers to greater student involvement. The general perception of teachers and mothers relating to each of these three research questions were similar. Teachers and mothers shared their hopes that their students would achieve independence and self-determination. On the other hand, students were ambivalent about their futures and were often reluctant, unwilling or unable to share their thoughts.

Both teachers and mothers saw self-determination as a necessary skill that students needed in order to achieve future goals. However, teachers and mothers interpreted terms differently. Teachers concentrated their efforts on specific tasks, such as career interests and job-seeking skills. Mothers were teaching independent living skills, encouraging their children to form friendships, procuring jobs and communicating with schools. Mothers who were overly involved saw themselves as "case managers" of their children's futures, and their heavy-handed approach often complicated the transition process and deterred students' self-determination.

Students seemed to have little knowledge or interest in defining and working on what they wanted to do after completing high school. They were passive recipients of the transition activities being conducted and managed by their teachers and mothers. Students were not involved in transition activities where they could make choices, and had no opportunity to practice self-determination skills. The researchers saw students' involvement as superficial.

Two major barriers to student involvement were lack of communication between teachers and families, and lack of administrative support for transition planning. Transition requires ongoing communication between teachers, families, students, employers and agencies. Communication requires that all participants agree on their roles and on the changing nature of their roles, as high school departure gets closer. Teachers and mothers in this study were not in agreement on what the specific roles of each of the participants in the transition process should be. Teachers had little time to communicate outside of the IEP meeting. Mothers were nurturing and couldn't or didn't want to let go. Teachers in the study saw administrators as barriers to student involvement. Administrators were uncomfortable with the teachers working out in the community, and may not have the resources to support a broader community based role for teachers.

The conclusions of Lehmann, Basset and Sands were not very encouraging. Three areas need to be addressed. Agreement must be reached as to what constitutes transition related activities, and the resources needed to accomplish them. Next, real opportunities must be provided to the student to be actively involved in the transition process and to develop self-determination skills. Third, current delivery of transition services is stagnant. The authors commented that "Teachers are delivering curriculum, mothers are caring for their children, and students are passively following along." It appears that effective transition planning is more of a promise than a reality.

Assessment & Self-Advocacy

Assessment of a student's skills and individual needs is the first step in transition planning for students with learning disabilities. Levinson and Ohler described successful vocational assessment programs as continuous and multi-level. Starting out in elementary school, the focus should be on an individual's needs, values, interests, interpersonal and decision-making skills, exploring vocations and careers broadly, and building self-awareness. During middle school years, the assessment focuses more specifically on vocational interests, aptitudes, work habits and career maturity, uses interviews and observations in addition to norm referenced assessment instruments, and encourages career exploration in more detail. During high school, assessment uses more experience-based assessment devices such as work samples, and focuses on the specific training one needs to obtain post-secondary education and employment.

Self-awareness skills are particularly important for a successful transition from high school to college for students with learning disabilities. Furthermore, awareness of one's weaknesses, awareness of what accommodations are available, and the ability to successfully advocate for oneself are particularly important for students with more severe learning disabilities. The degree of impairment will determine the nature and amount of services the student will continue to need, so self-assessment and self-advocacy skills are even more important for the individual after transitioning from high school to college.

A survey of college service coordinators by Janiga and Costenbader found that college students with learning disabilities were assessed by their high schools within three years prior to entering college. However, many coordinators felt that the quality of those assessments should be improved, and should include documentation for the specific accommodations needed by the student. The evaluations being done at the high school level may not be thorough enough to help determine the services needed at the postsecondary level. Quality-deficient and inadequately documented assessments that lack specificity may neither be accepted nor implemented at the postsecondary level.

The Janiga and Costenbader survey also disclosed the need for better self-assessment skills among students with learning disabilities who want to transition from the secondary to the postsecondary education environment. While planning their transition in secondary school, students must be made aware of the differences that they will experience when entering postsecondary school, such as differences in instructional time, class size, teaching and examination methods. With more knowledge of their disabilities, students would be better able to explain their needs for specific accommodations in college. Without this knowledge and the ability to explain their disabilities and resultant needs to others, students cannot function as their own advocates, and may not receive the services they require in order to succeed. The implication of their study is that many students with learning disabilities entering college have relied too heavily on their parents and on their special education teachers, and may struggle when they leave high school and are forced to take responsibility for their own educational services. Lacking adequate assessments and self-assessment skills, children are ill prepared to become their own self-advocates.

Smith, English & Vasek studied student and parent involvement in the transition process for college freshmen with learning disabilities. They found that 38% of parents were still helping their college students select courses and 39% were helping them select school activities. A significant portion of students with learning disabilities felt "no good" and "useless at times." This type of negative talk about oneself does not indicate a high degree of self-confidence. Students with learning disabilities are often not prepared for college level work because they have not been taught self-advocacy skills.

Since neither parents nor counselors will be making sure that accommodations are being taken care of, a student with a learning disability must be his own self-advocate. To be his own self-advocate, the student must understand his disability, be aware of his strengths and weaknesses, and be able to articulate his needs for accommodations related to his disability. Competent disclosure and self-advocacy skills are the leading indicators of college success for the student with learning disabilities. Student disclosure, however, must not be done in a confrontational manner, and disclosure of problems without reasonable suggestions for needed accommodations will most likely result in no accommodations being provided.

All too often parents try to hold on when they should be letting go, and when they hold on too long, they contribute to an unsuccessful transition for their child with a learning disability. The role of a parent is to help educate their child concerning career opportunities and postsecondary education opportunities, and to help develop their child's disclosure and self-advocacy skills. Parents need to emphasize that it is the child's responsibility to arrange for any needed accommodations, and to foster adult-to-adult communication and cooperation. This pro-active training needs to begin early so that when their children with learning disabilities leave high school, parents let go of their advocacy responsibilities and students become their own competent advocates.

Outcomes and Aspirations

The documentation and research reviewed by Goldstein, Nourse and Edgar led them to be concerned about the life situation of students with disabilities following high school. They found that researchers had reported low rates of employment, low earnings, low rates of postsecondary school attendance, and low rates of independent living. The literature that they studied stressed the importance of providing students with disabilities experiences within high school that will improve their transition to adulthood. Goldstein, Nourse and Edgar's own empirical study focused on four key points: 1) Postsecondary school attendance rates, 2) Types of programs attended, 3) Postsecondary school graduation rates, and 4) Employment related benefits associated with postsecondary school attendance.

The findings of the Goldstein study were consistent with what the literature suggested that they might be on the first three points: 1) High school graduates with learning disabilities are less likely to attend postsecondary school than their non-disabled peers; 2) High school graduates with learning disabilities who attend postsecondary schools are more likely to attend vocational school and community colleges, than their non-disabled peers, and less likely to attend a four-year degree program; and 3) High school graduates with learning disabilities are less likely to actually graduate from postsecondary school. On the fourth point, the results took an unexpected twist.

It was expected that students with learning disabilities who had attended postsecondary school would have higher rates of employment and higher incomes than those who did not attend postsecondary school. The study did not show this correlation. There was no relationship shown between the employment status and income of high school graduates with leaning disabilities based on whether or not they attended postsecondary school, or whether or not they graduated from postsecondary school. The authors acknowledged that there might be limitations with their study related to their sample, but nevertheless offered two possible interpretations. First, students with learning disabilities may not be receiving adequate preparation in high school in order to meet the demands of postsecondary school, and efforts should be stepped up to ensure that more students are qualified to attend postsecondary school and have the tools and accommodations needed for success. A second interpretation is that most students with learning disabilities, regardless of academic preparation in high school, are simply not going to do well in secondary school. Students with learning disabilities might be better off if we focus transition activities on apprenticeship programs, mentoring, job skills and entrepreneurship. This interpretation envisions developing more intensive support services in postsecondary settings for students with learning disabilities.

Rojewski prepared an analysis of the aspirations and attainment of young adults with and without learning disabilities two years after completion of high school. He used The National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-1994, a national probability sample administered by the National Center for Educational Statistics of the U.S. Department of Education. The author's findings were consistent with previous research using other data. Youth with a learning disability were less likely to have received a high school diploma or its equivalency than students in the general population. Women with a learning disability were particularly at risk. Although not unexpected, this information is bad news for youth with a learning disability: After years of receiving special education services while in school, nearly one-quarter had not attained the minimum academic credentials needed to obtain employment in many fields, and that the occupational future for these individuals was questionable. Young adults with learning disabilities also had lower aspirations than their non-disabled peers: Men with learning disabilities were more likely to aspire to occupations with low prestige, and women with learning disabilities were twice as likely as men with learning disabilities to aspire to occupations with low prestige. Lower aspirations have a limiting effect on future opportunities and should be an important consideration in transition planning for children with learning disabilities.

Two years out of high school, individuals with learning disabilities were more likely to be employed in the workforce but only half as likely to be enrolled in some type of postsecondary education program when compared to individuals without learning disabilities. The rates for women with learning disabilities who were not employed and not participating in postsecondary education were nearly four times higher than the other groups. Rojewski found that the combined effect of being a woman and experiencing learning disabilities had a substantial negative effect on career choice and attainment.

High educational aspirations and successful completion of an academic high school program were found to be especially important predictor variables for individuals with learning disabilities who were enrolled in postsecondary education. Lower self-esteem and lower socioeconomic status were important predictor variables for individuals with learning disabilities who were unemployed and out of the workforce entirely. Negative teacher expectations can devalue the role and lower the self-concept of their students with learning disabilities, and result in limited educational, training and career choices for these students. Young adults with learning disabilities, as a group, are immature, passive, and have very limited knowledge about the world of work. Teachers must take these tendencies into account when doing transition planning for their students.

Strategies

Skinner and Lindstrom point out that learning disabilities are a life-span issue. Early research focused so much on children in elementary, middle and secondary school settings, parents and professionals often assumed that learning disabilities were to be remediated by the time the child finished high school. However, research and experience has demonstrated that students who are diagnosed with specific learning disabilities during childhood will most likely live with those problems for their entire life span. To achieve success in any postsecondary setting, the individual must be equipped with a set of strategies that can be used that are appropriate to that setting.

Several strategies were suggested to increase the probability of a successful transition for college-bound students with a learning disability. First, students must know about their disability and how it affects their learning, and be armed with specific operational strategies that can help to compensate for those weaknesses. Next, because parents, special education teachers and others won't be there to advocate for the student in college, students must learn to self-advocate. Third, students must know their rights and responsibilities under the laws that apply to them. Fourth, students must select their postsecondary school very carefully, with particular attention to their programs, admission requirements, cost, size, location, social climate and extracurricular activities. Fifth, students with learning disabilities should develop a timeline and start working on postsecondary preparation activities by 9th grade. Sixth, students must self-identify and follow the institution's process for obtaining needed accommodations. Seventh, students with learning disabilities must learn to be highly organized in everything that they do. Eighth, students must develop a support network and consider joining a support group for students with learning disabilities. Ninth, while still in high school, obtain a comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation that focuses on the specific processing problems that the student has, and written in a way that will support the learning accommodations that the student will need in college. Tenth, participate in a formal postsecondary transition program.

Although data from other studies found that success at the college level for students with learning disabilities is rare, Skinner and Lindstrom suggested that school based programs can help bridge the gap between high school and college for students with learning disabilities, and that success need not be so rare.

Beale offered strategy suggestions to parents of children with learning disabilities to help them decide what they can do for and with their children as they go through school and through the transition process. For their children, parents should: 1) become familiar with federal and state regulations dealing with the education of children with disabilities; 2) make sure that the local schools include career counseling as a part of the curriculum; 3) find out what school and community programs are available and the eligibility requirements; 4) find out about part-time job opportunities.

With the children, parents should: 1) participate in IEP and transition activities, making sure career planning is adequately addressed; 2) encourage and develop independence and decision-making skills; 3) reinforce social skills; 4) develop job seeking skills including employer identification, completing applications, and interviewing. The goal of parent involvement is to make sure that their children have access to the competitive labor market.

The use of technology is a critical strategy in the transition process. Mull and Sitlington addressed this critical component by summarizing findings found in the literature regarding a) identifying specific technology recommendations, b) discussing the issues related to using these recommendations, and c) providing planning recommendations. The specific technology recommendations receiving the most focus were those to assist in written language, reading and spelling. Least focused were those to assist in mathematics. The authors found that the vast majority of recommendations were for technologies that were readily available at moderate cost.

The issues related to using technology included: 1) the purpose of use as either a cognitive prosthesis to correct a specific impairment, or as a cognitive partner to support the student with a learning disability in a specific task; 2) the availability and cost to the institution, 3) the abandonment of assistive devices by nearly one-third of all students; 4) training of students and instructors in the use of these devices; and 5) non-eligibility in the continued use of devices due to the students' success in using those devices.

Mull and Sitlington provided four planning recommendations: 1) identification of funding well in advance of training and use of the devices; 2) selection of the specific devices must be based on an assessment of the student's needs in the particular postsecondary environment that the student intends to enroll, and the assessment must involve the student as an active participant in that selection; 3) students must be properly trained in the use of the devices prior to transitioning to the postsecondary environment; and 4) professionals must consider the detrimental impact on the successful student by removal of the learning disability label, thus making the student ineligible to use the devices that are helping him or her become successful.

The increase in the availability of compensatory technologies has been a factor in the increase in the number of students with learning disabilities enrolling in postsecondary institutions. For students who need to correct a specific impairment, continued use of an assistive device should be encouraged. However, some students who use devices to help themselves with learning tasks should consider limiting their use or transitioning away from these devices over time so they won't become overly dependent on them and will still be able to function independently without them.

Diversity

The literature search by Trainor found that teaching students with learning disabilities to be self-determining during the transition from high school to adulthood is considered to be good special education practice. Self-determination is a person's freedom to make decisions independently, free from excessive outside influence, about such activities as work, education and independent living. Students with learning disabilities must act on their decisions and learn from the results. Students must become their own best advocates. The benchmark used to assess self-determination is measured largely by postsecondary residential and financial independence. Parents of students with learning disabilities reported that those who had a high level of self-determination expressed a desire to live on their own more frequently than students with low levels of self-determination. Individualism and self-reliance are key values that are used to determine whether transition is successful. Special education philosophy and best practices reflect the results of all this research on self-determination as a goal for the transition process.

Trainor reported that the major problem with the use of this research is that the subjects are mostly from the dominant white culture. Emphasis on self-determination throughout the whole special education process in general, and in the transition process in particular, reflects the cultural values of the special educators from the dominant culture. Emphasis on these values has increased the quality of life for most people with disabilities, but special educators need to acknowledge that not all cultural groups will prioritize these values in the same way. For example, children from a particular cultural group may not have goals of financial and residential independence within a year of graduation, or may not feel comfortable going to college away from home immediately following high school. To the extent that the transition process tries to fit all students into the cultural mold of the dominant group, that process may be out of compliance with the IDEA mandate that all students with a disability have an appropriate individualized transition plan.

Road to Pygmalion

Significant student participation in transition planning is a requirement of IDEA. Yet the literature reviews of both Hitchings and Lehmann found that participation by students in the transition process was either non-existent or seriously lacking. Neither of these articles outlined a specific working strategy that would correct the deleterious situation, but they agree that lack of student active participation in the transition process is prescription for failure.

Levinson and Ohler established the connection between assessment activities and self-awareness. This connection gives direct student purpose to assessment. Janiga and Costenbader extended this connection to the collegiate student with learning disabilities: Without self-awareness students will not be able to explain their disabilities to college professors and be unable to advocate for the accommodations that they may need to become successful college students. Smith, English & Vasek also looked at self-advocacy from the standpoint of college accommodations for individuals with learning disabilities. They emphasized that the role of the parents while their child is in high school is to prepare their child for independence.

Regarding outcomes, Goldstein documented the expected and the unexpected: While postsecondary academic outcomes have been low for students with learning disabilities, formal academic education beyond high school for many students with learning disabilities might not be beneficial. This possible interpretation of the data took courage for postsecondary educators to make, and the data need at lot more study, but, if substantiated, according to the authors, more postsecondary emphasis should be placed on apprenticeship programs presumably in hands-on occupations. The authors should also consider the impact that globalization is having on the elimination of this career path for our students (see below). Rojewski also looked at outcomes and aspirations for students with learning disabilities compared to their non-disabled peers. Rojewski confirmed that individuals with learning disabilities do not generally do well after high school and have lower aspirations than those without disabilities. Rojewski should be credited with calling attention to the most vulnerable in our society: Women with learning disabilities do much worse than men with learning disabilities and have much lower aspirations as well.

Skinner and Lindstrom presented a good set of strategies that outlines what parents, teachers and students should be doing to prepare for the next step after high school. Their strategies provide an overall road map. Unfortunately, their recommendations are not generally being followed and students are paying the price as adults unprepared for life. Beale provides strategies for parents, and children would be much better off if parents were involved as Beale suggests; perhaps appropriate parent education and training should be a requirement of parenthood. Mull and Sitlington provide a good summary of technologies available for domains where children may have deficits, and their planning recommendations are excellent. We could benefit, however, from an enhancement to the article that included a case study that describes a successful technology selection and implementation from the student's point of view.

Trainor brings up issues relating to cultural and language diversity: Studies on transition chiefly apply to white people, and may not apply to minorities because minorities may have different values than white people. Trainor suggests the need for transition studies that give minorities a fair accounting. This suggestion requires adequate funding of IDEA program assessment.

Prior to globalization, a young man or woman who was not academically inclined could get training in a very hands-on occupation, advance through the ranks from trainee, to apprentice, to journeyman all the way to become a master of that trade. Now many of those good hands-on jobs don't exist: Many jobs have been eliminated through automation, other jobs are no longer required because the products have changed or been eliminated, and many other hands-on jobs have been moved to developing countries where labor is much cheaper. We still have a great need for knowledge workers, but many individuals with learning disabilities do not qualify to fill those positions because of the learning deficits that they may have. Congenial people with learning disabilities may still qualify for jobs in the service sector, but many of those positions have low prestige, low pay, and are often perceived as "dead-end." Many people think that the latest United Nations Millennium Report, We the People, is referring only to those in third would countries when it says, "More broadly, for many people globalization has come to mean greater vulnerability to unfamiliar and unpredictable forces that can bring on economic instability and social dislocation, sometimes at lightning speed." However, the negative impact of globalization can be especially hard on those with learning disabilities in any country. Economic globalization is not only here to stay but it is picking up steam as barriers to free international trade are removed. Clearly, we need to specifically identify the problems that we are creating for children with learning disabilities and provide strategies that will produce positive results rather than empty promises and political rhetoric. As a nation, we may need a shift in the way we think and act.

This article began with a quote from Eliza Doolittle and now she will finish her thought, "I shall always be a flower girl to Professor Higgins because he always treated me like a flower girl, and always will." She continues, "I know I can be a lady to you [Colonel Pickering], because you always treat me as a lady, and always will." Professor Higgins only managed to teach Eliza pronunciations, his view of the curriculum, while Colonel Pickering's thoughtful treatment towards Eliza taught her to respect herself. All children, especially those with learning disabilities, need to be taught to respect themselves from the very start, and they deserve to be treated with respect as well. Based on the results of the studies reviewed in this article, it is appears that we may still have too many Professor Higgins' among us and far too few Colonel Pickering's. But the road to Pygmalion is forgiving: Each day provides new opportunities for teachers to make positive differences in how their students think and act.

References

Beale, A. W. (1999). Career planning guidelines for parents of students with mild disabilities. The Clearing House, 72(3), 179-181.

Goldstein, D. E., Nourse, S., & Edgar, E. (2000). The postsecondary attendance and completion rates of high school graduates with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15(1), 119-127.

Hitchings, W. E., Luzzo, D. A., Ristow, R., Horvath, M., Retish, P., Tanners, A. (2001). The career development needs of college students with learning disabilities: In their own words. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(1), 8-17.

Janiga, S. J. & Costenbader, V. (2002). The transition from high school to postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities: A survey of college service coordinators. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 463-468.

Kuklinski, M. R., & Weinstein, R. S. (2001). Classroom and developmental differences in a path model of teacher expectancy effects. Child Development, 72(5), 1554-1578.

Lehmann, J. P., Bassett, D. S., & Sands, D. J. (1999). Students' participation in transition-related actions: A qualitative study. Remedial and Special Education, 20(1), 160-169.

Levinson, E. M., Ohler, D. L. (1998). Transition from high school to college for students with learning disabilities: Needs, Assessment and Services. High School Journal, 82(1) 62-69.

Mull, C. A., Sitlington, P. L. (2003). The role of technology in the transition to postsecondary education of students with learning disabilities: A review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 26-32.

Rojewski, J. W. (1999). Occupational and educational aspirations and attainment of young adults with and without learning disabilities 2 years after high school completion. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32(6), 533-552.

Skinner, M. E., & Lindstrom, B. D. (2003). Bridging the gap between high school and college: Strategies for the successful transition of students with learning disabilities. Preventing School Failure, 47(3), 132-137.

Smith, S. G., English, R., & Vasek, D., (2002). Student and parent involvement in the transition process for college freshmen with learning disabilities [HTML Electronic version]. College Student Journal, 36(4).

Trainor, A. (2002). Self-determination for students with learning disabilities: Is it a universal value? Qualitative Studies in Education, 15(6), 711-725.

United Nations (2000). Millennium report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations: We the peoples, full report, globalization and governance. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/millennium/sg/report/ch1.pdf

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FOCUS ON SPECIAL EDUCATION

Last Chance: A Review of Transition Issues for Students with Learning Disabilities